RHENIUM
(Data in kilograms of rhenium content, unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: During 2001, ores containing rhenium were mined by six operations. Rhenium compounds are included in molybdenum concentrates derived from porphyry copper deposits in the Southwestern United States, and rhenium is recovered as a byproduct from roasting such molybdenum concentrates. Rhenium-containing products included ammonium perrhenate, perrhenic acid, and metal powder. The major uses of rhenium were in petroleum-reforming catalysts and in high-temperature superalloys used in turbine engine components, representing about 40% and 50%, respectively, of the total demand. Rhenium was used in petroleum-reforming catalysts for the production of high-octane hydrocarbons, which are used in the production of lead-free gasoline. Bimetallic platinum-rhenium catalysts have replaced many of the monometallic catalysts. Rhenium is used in superalloys, improving the strength properties, at high temperatures (1,000o C), of nickel-based alloys. Some of the uses for rhenium alloys were in thermocouples, temperature controls, heating elements, ionization gauges, mass spectrographs, electron tubes and targets, electrical contacts, metallic coatings, vacuum tubes, crucibles, electromagnets, and semiconductors. The estimated value of rhenium consumed in 2001 was $42 million.
| Salient Statistics—United States: | 1997 | 1998 | 1999 | 2000 | 2001e |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Production1 | 15,400 | 14,000 | 12,000 | 12,600 | 9,700 |
| Imports for consumption | 15,100 | 25,200 | 15,500 | 18,100 | 24,700 |
| Exports | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA |
| Consumption: | |||||
| Estimated | 17,900 | 28,600 | 32,500 | 32,000 | 35,000 |
| Apparent | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA |
| Price, average value, dollars per kilogram: | |||||
| Metal powder, 99.99% pure | 900 | 500 | 1,100 | 1,110 | 1,200 |
| Ammonium perrhenate | 300 | 400 | 750 | 780 | 840 |
| Stocks, yearend, consumer, producer, | |||||
| dealer | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA |
| Employment, number Net import reliance2 as a percentage of | Small | Small | Small | Small | Small |
| estimated consumption | 84 | 88 | 48 | 57 | 71 |
Recycling: Small amounts of molybdenum-rhenium and tungsten-rhenium scrap have been processed by several companies during the past few years. All spent platinum-rhenium catalysts were recycled.
Import Sources (1997-2000): Chile, 55%; Kazakhstan, 17%; Germany 14%; Russia, 6%; and other, 8%.
Other inorganic acids, other—rhenium, etc. 2811.19.6050 4.2% ad val. Salts of peroxometallic acids, other—
ammonium perrhenate 2841.90.2000 3.1% ad val. Rhenium, etc., (metals) waste and scrap 8112.91.0500 Free. Rhenium, (metals) unwrought; powders 8112.91.5000 3% ad val. Rhenium, etc., (metals) wrought; etc. 8112.99.0000 4% ad val.
Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).
Government Stockpile: None.
Prepared by John W. Blossom [(703) 648-4964, jblossom@usgs.gov, fax: (703) 648-7757]
RHENIUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: During 2001, the average rhenium prices were $1,200 per kilogram for metal and $840 per kilogram for ammonium perrhenate. The supply increased by 12%, and the consumption increased by 9%. The United States relied on imports for much of its supply of rhenium. Imports of rhenium increased by about 36% in 2001 compared with those of 2000. Chile and Kazakhstan supplied the majority of the rhenium imported. The increased estimated consumption was for catalysts for petroleum refining and superalloys for turbine engines.
For 2002, U.S. consumption of rhenium is estimated to be about 40,000 kilograms.
Owing to the scarcity and minor output of rhenium, its production and processing pose no known threat to the environment. In areas where it is recovered, pollution control equipment for sulfur dioxide also prevents most of the rhenium from escaping into the atmosphere.
World Mine Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base:
| Mine productione | Reserves3 | Reserve base3 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2000 | 2001 | |||
| United States | 12,600 | 9,700 | 390,000 | 4,500,000 |
| Armenia | 700 | 700 | 95,000 | 120,000 |
| Canada | 1,600 | 1,600 | — | 1,500,000 |
| Chile | 2,200 | 2,200 | 1,300,000 | 2,500,000 |
| Kazakhstan | 2,400 | 3,000 | 190,000 | 250,000 |
| Peru | 4,800 | 5,000 | 45,000 | 550,000 |
| Russia | 1,100 | 1,200 | 310,000 | 400,000 |
| Other countries | 3,000 | 3,000 | 91,000 | 360,000 |
| World total (rounded) | 28,400 | 26,400 | 2,400,000 | 10,000,000 |
World Resources: Most rhenium occurs with molybdenum in porphyry copper deposits. Identified U.S. resources are estimated to be about 5 million kilograms, and the identified resources of the rest of the world are approximately 6 million kilograms. In Kazakhstan, rhenium also exists in sedimentary copper deposits.
Substitutes: Substitutes for rhenium in platinum-rhenium catalysts are being evaluated continually. Iridium and tin have achieved commercial success in one such application. Other metals being evaluated for catalytic use include gallium, germanium, indium, selenium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium. The use of these and other metals in bimetallic catalysts may decrease rhenium’s share of the catalyst market. Materials that can substitute for rhenium in various end uses are as follows: cobalt and tungsten for coatings on copper x-ray targets, rhodium and rhodium-iridium for high-temperature thermocouples, tungsten and platinum-ruthenium for coatings on electrical contacts, and tungsten and tantalum for electron emitters.
eEstimated. NA Not available. — Zero.
1Calculated rhenium contained in MoS2 concentrates. Recovered quantities are considerably less and are withheld.
2Defined as imports - exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
3See Appendix C for definitions.
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2002